Which decision is associated with allowing substantial independent political expenditure by corporations and unions?

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The main idea here is how money can influence elections through independent spending versus direct contributions to campaigns. Citizens United v. FEC is the landmark ruling that matters. It held that the First Amendment protects the right of corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts on political communications that are independent of a candidate’s campaign. In other words, these groups can fund advertising and other political advocacy without the same restrictions that apply to direct contributions to campaigns or political committees.

That makes the option describing unlimited independent political expenditure by corporations and unions the best fit. It captures the core effect of the decision: large-scale, outside spending on elections driven by corporate and union resources, as long as that spending is independent of the campaigns themselves. The other statements don’t align with the ruling: it wasn’t a prohibition on corporate political spending, it isn’t the case that Citizens United requires blanket disclosure of all spending in every context, and it certainly doesn’t ban political spending by unions.